Obesity also a threat in developing countries

Obesity also a threat in developing countries

Sadly, we are getting accustomed to see emaciated people in poor countries and extremely fat people in rich countries. However, as countries develop this is getting far form reality as both starvation and obesity are closely linked with poverty, and as such they are both symptoms of malnutrition.
The negative effects of unhealthy processed fat and sugar-rich diets in combination with low physical activity began to be recognized in the early 1990s, but they did not become clearly acknowledged until diabetes, hypertension, and obesity began to dominate the world.

As well as in countries with high income levels, rates of obesity and overweight are widely documented in the poorest countries of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In these countries, higher incomes imply access to unhealthy fattening food, and consequently, higher prevalences of obesity. Healthy food is usually either not available or not affordable. While in the developed world, obesity is already considered a pandemic, this is also now true for the developing countries. Obesity is affecting both rich and poor countries and causing more deaths than undernourishment, according to the World Economic Forum, which is actually bankrupting economies and short-changing future generations in a major way.

Governments from the richest countries have stated to implement policies to fight the pandemic, with an array of large-scale programmatic and policy measures. However, few developing countries are engaged in serious efforts to prevent the serious dietary challenges being faced.

DNA Nanotechnology

DNA Nanotechnology

DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based as well as using the "DNA origami" method) as well as three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra. Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins

Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA is the genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that provide energy for cells. Mitochondria provide energy to cells, and therefore called on the musclemen.

The concepts are not easy to understand scientific biology, if people from the science background. Therefore, mitochondrial DNA data do before they know words and mitochondrial DNA.

Understanding DNAA deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) the genetic information used in the development and function of living organisms. It is often referred to as a blueprint, because it is the genetic information of the cell components, such as proteins and RNA can be taken. Genes are sections of DNA that carries genetic information. They control the physical properties of the human body such as eye color, hair, bone thickness, construction, etc.
Understanding the mitochondria
Mitochondria are the majority of the Mitochondrion. They are rod-shaped organelles, surrounded by a membrane, is present in many eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are complex structures within the mud. Mitochondria considered powerhouses of the cell, as they take nutrients and oxygen, and break them down into the ATPS (adenosine triphosphate). This is called cellular respiration.
Mitochondrial DNA
DNA is usually present in the chromosomes in the nucleus, but mitochondria are also small amounts of DNA even if the mitochondrial DNA. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) present in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Mitochondrial DNA is double stranded circular molecule, as received from the mother of all multicellular organisms. That's because, in the course of fertilization, all mtDNA from the egg. Approximately 2.10 transcripts of mtDNA in each mitochrondion. Compared with the chromosomes, the less reasonable, and the genes in a limited number. Changes in mtDNA cause maternally got the disease, and a faster aging and geriatric diseases.

Mitochondrial DNA StructureMitochondrial DNA are about 16,500 base pairs of DNA building blocks () that the very small number compared with the total DNA in cells present. The genes necessary for normal function of mitochondria. Of the 37 genes, 13 are responsible for making enzymes involved in oxidation phosphorylation, a process of oxygen and sugar to the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. The 14 remaining genes responsible for making molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These are known as chemical DNA Cousins, as they help to accumulate amino acids in proteins.

mtDNA has a large number of enzymes, and localization of the matrix. The proteins involved in respiration are embedded in the mitochondrial inner membrane.Mitochondria is similar to the properties of plant chloroplasts. Chloroplasts of plants with their own DNA, making them able to grow and reproduce independently.

In some metazoans, there are about 100 to 10,000 separate copies of mtDNA are present per cell. While in mammals, composed, each share mitochondrial DNA molecule 16,500 base pairs, of the 37 genes coding for 13 proteins, 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) and one for each small subunit and rRNA large. The same pattern in metazoans, but in some cases, one or more of the 37 genes are missing, and a large amount of mtDNA. Some plants large number of mtDNA types (as many as 2,500,000 base pairs per mtDNA molecule), but still mtDNAs that the same number of genes.

There are approximately 20,000 to 25,000 total genes in the human genome and genes in mitochondria among them.

DNA Microarray

DNA Microarray

A DNA microarray is a multiplex technology used in molecular biology. It consists of an arrayed series of thousands of microscopic spots of DNA oligonucleotides, called features, each containing picomoles (10-12 moles) of a specific DNA sequence, known as probes (or reporters). This can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used to hybridize a cDNA or cRNA sample (called target) under high-stringency conditions. Probe-target hybridization is usually detected and quantified by detection of fluorophore-, silver-, or chemiluminescence-labeled targets to determine relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in the target. Since an array can contain tens of thousands of probes, a microarray experiment can accomplish many genetic tests in parallel. Therefore arrays have dramatically accelerated many types of investigation.

In standard microarrays, the probes are attached via surface engineering to a solid surface by a covalent bond to a chemical matrix (via epoxy-silane, amino-silane, lysine, polyacrylamide or others). The solid surface can be glass or a silicon chip, in which case they are colloquially known as an Affy chip when an Affymetrix chip is used. Other microarray platforms, such as Illumina, use microscopic beads, instead of the large solid support. DNA arrays are different from other types of microarray only in that they either measure DNA or use DNA as part of its detection system.

DNA microarrays can be used to measure changes in expression levels, to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) , to genotype or resequence mutant genomes (see uses and types section). Microarrays also differ in fabrication, workings, accuracy, efficiency, and cost (see fabrication section). Additional factors for microarray experiments are the experimental design and the methods of analyzing the data (see Bioinformatics section).

Genetic Change

Genetic Change

During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can have an impact on the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low 1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases.(Without proofreading error rates are a thousand-fold higher; because many viruses rely on DNA and RNA polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates.) Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA—nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.

In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).