DNA Nanotechnology

DNA Nanotechnology

DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based as well as using the "DNA origami" method) as well as three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra. Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins

Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA is the genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that provide energy for cells. Mitochondria provide energy to cells, and therefore called on the musclemen.

The concepts are not easy to understand scientific biology, if people from the science background. Therefore, mitochondrial DNA data do before they know words and mitochondrial DNA.

Understanding DNAA deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) the genetic information used in the development and function of living organisms. It is often referred to as a blueprint, because it is the genetic information of the cell components, such as proteins and RNA can be taken. Genes are sections of DNA that carries genetic information. They control the physical properties of the human body such as eye color, hair, bone thickness, construction, etc.
Understanding the mitochondria
Mitochondria are the majority of the Mitochondrion. They are rod-shaped organelles, surrounded by a membrane, is present in many eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are complex structures within the mud. Mitochondria considered powerhouses of the cell, as they take nutrients and oxygen, and break them down into the ATPS (adenosine triphosphate). This is called cellular respiration.
Mitochondrial DNA
DNA is usually present in the chromosomes in the nucleus, but mitochondria are also small amounts of DNA even if the mitochondrial DNA. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) present in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Mitochondrial DNA is double stranded circular molecule, as received from the mother of all multicellular organisms. That's because, in the course of fertilization, all mtDNA from the egg. Approximately 2.10 transcripts of mtDNA in each mitochrondion. Compared with the chromosomes, the less reasonable, and the genes in a limited number. Changes in mtDNA cause maternally got the disease, and a faster aging and geriatric diseases.

Mitochondrial DNA StructureMitochondrial DNA are about 16,500 base pairs of DNA building blocks () that the very small number compared with the total DNA in cells present. The genes necessary for normal function of mitochondria. Of the 37 genes, 13 are responsible for making enzymes involved in oxidation phosphorylation, a process of oxygen and sugar to the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. The 14 remaining genes responsible for making molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These are known as chemical DNA Cousins, as they help to accumulate amino acids in proteins.

mtDNA has a large number of enzymes, and localization of the matrix. The proteins involved in respiration are embedded in the mitochondrial inner membrane.Mitochondria is similar to the properties of plant chloroplasts. Chloroplasts of plants with their own DNA, making them able to grow and reproduce independently.

In some metazoans, there are about 100 to 10,000 separate copies of mtDNA are present per cell. While in mammals, composed, each share mitochondrial DNA molecule 16,500 base pairs, of the 37 genes coding for 13 proteins, 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) and one for each small subunit and rRNA large. The same pattern in metazoans, but in some cases, one or more of the 37 genes are missing, and a large amount of mtDNA. Some plants large number of mtDNA types (as many as 2,500,000 base pairs per mtDNA molecule), but still mtDNAs that the same number of genes.

There are approximately 20,000 to 25,000 total genes in the human genome and genes in mitochondria among them.

DNA Microarray

DNA Microarray

A DNA microarray is a multiplex technology used in molecular biology. It consists of an arrayed series of thousands of microscopic spots of DNA oligonucleotides, called features, each containing picomoles (10-12 moles) of a specific DNA sequence, known as probes (or reporters). This can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used to hybridize a cDNA or cRNA sample (called target) under high-stringency conditions. Probe-target hybridization is usually detected and quantified by detection of fluorophore-, silver-, or chemiluminescence-labeled targets to determine relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in the target. Since an array can contain tens of thousands of probes, a microarray experiment can accomplish many genetic tests in parallel. Therefore arrays have dramatically accelerated many types of investigation.

In standard microarrays, the probes are attached via surface engineering to a solid surface by a covalent bond to a chemical matrix (via epoxy-silane, amino-silane, lysine, polyacrylamide or others). The solid surface can be glass or a silicon chip, in which case they are colloquially known as an Affy chip when an Affymetrix chip is used. Other microarray platforms, such as Illumina, use microscopic beads, instead of the large solid support. DNA arrays are different from other types of microarray only in that they either measure DNA or use DNA as part of its detection system.

DNA microarrays can be used to measure changes in expression levels, to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) , to genotype or resequence mutant genomes (see uses and types section). Microarrays also differ in fabrication, workings, accuracy, efficiency, and cost (see fabrication section). Additional factors for microarray experiments are the experimental design and the methods of analyzing the data (see Bioinformatics section).

Genetic Change

Genetic Change

During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can have an impact on the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low 1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases.(Without proofreading error rates are a thousand-fold higher; because many viruses rely on DNA and RNA polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates.) Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA—nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.

In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).

Facts about the human chromosome

Facts about the human chromosome

Human chromosome DNA that contains the part of all important information about the human essence. A chromosome is, by definition, threadlike element of DNA in the cell nucleus carrying genes, heredity in linear units. Human beings have 22 pairs of chromosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. In addition to genes, chromosomes also contain regulatory elements and sequences nucleotides. The house of DNA-binding proteins that control the functions of DNA. It is interesting to note that the word chromosome comes from the Greek word for Chrome color. Chromosomes are so named because their properties with multi-colored paint. Structure and nature of the chromosomes varies in different types. Human chromosome is always a topic of interest to researchers working in genetics. A wide range of factors that determine the human chromosomal abnormalities are responsible for and complexity, always ask a lot of interest. Let us see some interesting information on the human chromosome.

Facts about the human chromosome

23 pairs of chromosomes of human cell nuclear. Chromosome contains a DNA molecule containing genes. A molecule consisting of three chromosomal DNA sequences needed for reproduction. About color chromosome, band structure of mitotic chromosomes is obvious. Each tape contains several pairs of nucleotides in DNA.

Human beings are sexual reproduction and somatic cells are diploid with two sets of chromosomes. One which is inherited from the mother and one from the father. Since the body cells, gametes one set of chromosomes. Crossing between chromosomes leads to the creation of a new chromosome. The newly created chromosome is inherited from a parent. This suggests that not all of our shows features derived directly from one of our parents!

There are 24 different human chromosomes, with 22 chromosomes are autosomal and the other two are sex determining chromosomes. The human autosomal chromosomes are numbered 1-22 in descending order of size. "Every person has two sets of 22 chromosomes, X chromosomes from their mother and one X and one Y chromosome from the father.

Inconsistency may contain chromosomes in cells, can cause certain genetic diseases in humans. Chromosomal abnormalities in humans are often responsible for the appearance of genetic disease to their children. Those with chromosomal abnormalities are often entities disorder only, while their children are very suffering.

The chromosomal abnormalities caused by several factors, namely, to eliminate duplication or part of chromosomes, the inversion, which is to reverse the direction of movement of chromosomes or portions of chromosomes pay cut to another chromosome.

Extra copy of chromosome 21 is responsible for the known genetic disorder called Down syndrome. The trisomy of chromosome 18 results in Edwards syndrome, which can cause death in childhood.

The lack of the fifth chromosome lead to a genetic disorder known as "CRI du chat," which means "cry of the cat. The people who are affected by the disorder are shown as cat-cry in the early days and often think retarded.

Malfunctions due to sex chromosome including Turner syndrome, where the female sexual characteristics are present, but developed, Triple-X syndrome is a syndrome xxy boys and girls, both because of dyslexia to the people affected.

Chromosomes were discovered first in plants. Van Beneden monograph on the fertilized eggs of the nematode, leading to further investigations. Later this year, said in August Weismann, the germ cells is different from the body, and discovered that the cell nucleus houses the genetic material. It also suggests that the results of fertilization in a new combination of chromosomes.

These findings are the cornerstone in genetics. Scientists have achieved a sufficient amount of information on human chromosomes and genes, but much to be discovered.