Risks of Genetic Engineering

Risks of Genetic Engineering
What are the risks of genetic engineering? The revolution that genetic engineering caused was profound. There was initially great concern about genetic engineering. The concerns centered on several aspects of this work. First, the bacteria used in these experiments were E. coli. This bacterium commonly lives on our intestines. People were worried about what will happen if this laboratory organism got out into our gut. Could the bacteria lead to cancer? This fear led almost to hysteria. Municipalities passed laws banning all genetic engineering work. A very famous scientist arrived to his laboratory one day to find the police out front, saying “you’ve broken our municipal ordinance against doing any gene swapping”. Doom scenarios were all over the place.

In 1975, a conference was held in California which brought together scientists, ethicists, physicians and lawyers to deal with this situation. This was a unique event in the history of science and government relations. The meeting was called by the scientists who were doing the work. They wanted some sort of feedback on what they were doing, because they were worried about the possible risks of genetic engineering.

At this meeting, after several days of heated discussions, they decided to do a moratorium on certain types of experiments. For example, until they knew what they were doing, they weren’t allowed to put cancer genes into bacteria to study them. They imposed extreme safety precautions on all of their types of experiments. Government agencies and institutional boards at research universities were set up to oversee this.

Scientists really asked for this oversight, which is very unusual, because scientists usually are of the type “just let us do our work and leave us alone, we would never harm you”. In this case, scientists were quite worried because this was so profound a change in biological manipulation.

In retrospect, these concerns were overblown, and no dangerous events have really occurred with genetic engineering. In fact, experiments that required severe precautions in 1975 are now done in high-school science labs. This doesn’t mean that we don’t need to constantly monitor this research. If we are dealing with harmful genes we must take extreme precautions.

Problems With Genetic Engineering

Problems With Genetic Engineering
There is public concern about the possible problems with genetic engineering. At the start of the 1970’s, these concerns were more widespread, as we didn’t know really what we were doing. When this technology was shown to be safe, these concerns abated. The possible risks of genetic engineering, however, have been a public concern, especially in Europe. These objections are threefold.

The first problem is that genetic manipulation is an unnatural manipulation of nature. This is what philosophers call the “yuck factor”. According to this people, eating food from a plant that has genes from bacteria is just “going too far”. There is just too much technology here.

There is no real response to this emotional argument. Scientists would say: “Well, all major crops have been genetically manipulated by humans even before genetic engineering was invented, so, that’s okay.”

Well, genetic engineering is really different. We’re taking genes from all over the plant, animal and bacterial world, and splicing them together. We can’t offer a rational response to this argument. We just can hope that these concerns will abate, as has happened with in vitro fertilization, for example.

The second of the supposed problems with genetic engineering is that genetically modified foods might be unsafe to eat. Some modifications of proteins, for example, may create a structure in the protein that some people might be allergic to. It turns out that most genetically modified plants grown today are not altered in the food part of the plant. They have some extra DNA sequences, but they are not modified in the food part. We’ve got to be careful with allergies, however.

The third of the risks is that genetically modified plants may be dangerous to the environment. Although a single gene is being transferred to a crop plant (one that makes it resistant to insects, for example), that gene might be transferred also to neighboring plants. This has been observed in some instances, but not in others. There is a danger of creation of super weeds with resistance. This is maybe a real risk, but not a really serious one.

There are two ways to look at these public concerns. One way is to proceed with caution, to do as many tests as we can, and make sure something doesn’t cause harm. The other way to look at it is the precautionary principle. This principle says “if you can’t prove that this would never cause a problem, don’t do it”. This argument has been common in Europe, but less so in other parts of the world. Certainly, this argument isn’t made in the less developed parts of the world, where genetic engineering has become a major way of improving plants.

Gene Mapping by In Situ Hybridization

Gene Mapping by In Situ Hybridization

The previous mapping methods are indirect in that they provide information on the physical location of a gene on a particular chromosome but without actually visualizing the gene's map position. A more direct approach is in situ hybridization, which involves hybridizing DNA (or RNA) probes directly to metaphase chromosomes spread on a slide and visualizing the hybridization signal (and thus the location of the gene to which the probe hybridizes) under a microscope.

The DNA in metaphase chromosomes is denatured in place (hence, in situ) on the slide, and hybridization of a labeled probe is allowed to proceed. Methods for mapping single-copy gene sequences by in situ hybridization originally were laborious and slow, requiring long exposures of the slides under photographic emulsion to detect the location of hybridized probe that had been labeled with low-level isotopes, such as tritium. Mapping with confidence required analysis of many metaphase spreads to distinguish the real hybridization signal from background radioactivity. However, more sensitive techniques have now been developed that enable rapid detection of hybridized probes labeled non radioactively with compounds that can be visualized by fluorescence microscopy (Fig). Even in a single metaphase spread, one can easily see the position of the gene being mapped.

In combination with banding methods for chromosome identification, fluorescence in situ hybridization can be used to map genes to within 1 to 2 million base pairs (1000 to 2000 kb) along a metaphase chromosome. Although this degree of resolution is a considerable improvement over other methods, it is still substantially larger than the size of most individual genes.

Figure: Gene mapping by in situ hybridization of a biotin-labeled DNA probe for the human muscle glycogen phosphorylase gene (MGP) to a spread of human metaphase chromosomes. Location of the MGP gene is indicated by the bright spots seen over each chromatid at the site of the gene in band q13 of chromosome 11. The mapping of MGP to 11q13 also assigns the locus for McArdle disease, an autosomal recessive myoglobinuria caused by deficiency of MGP. (Photograph courtesy of Peter Lichter, Yale University)

Celera Genomics HGP

Celera Genomics & HGP

In 1998, an identical, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter and his firm Celera Genomics. The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly-funded project.Celera Genomics was established in May 1998 by the Perkin-Elmer Corporation (and was later purchased by Applera Corporation), with Dr. J. Craig Venter from The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) as its first president. While at TIGR, Venter and Hamilton Smith led the first successful effort to sequence an entire organism's genome, that of the Haemophilus influenzae bacterium. Celera was formed for the purpose of generating and commercializing genomic information to accelerate the understanding of biological processes.
The rise and fall of Celera as an ambitious competitor of the Human Genome Project is the main subject of the book The Genome War by James Shreeve, who takes a strong pro-Venter point of view. (He followed Venter around for two years in the process of writing the book.) A view from the public effort's side is that of Nobel laureate Sir John Sulston in his book The Common Thread: A Story of Science, Politics, Ethics and the Human Genome.Celera used a newer, riskier technique called whole genome shotgun sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes up to 6 million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the 3 billion base pair human genome.Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on "only 200-300" genes, but later amended this to seeking "intellectual property protection" on "fully-characterized important structures" amounting to 100-300 targets. Contrary to its public promises, the firm eventually filed patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes.Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of Nature (which published the publicly-funded project's scientific paper) and Science (which published Celera's paper) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence. These drafts covered about 90% of the genome, with much of the remaining 10% filled in later. In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, press releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and again in 2005, filling in roughly 8% of the remaining sequence.
HGP is the most well known of many international genome projects aimed at sequencing the DNA of a specific organism. While the human DNA sequence offers the most tangible benefits, important developments in biology and medicine are predicted as a result of the sequencing of model organisms, including mice, fruit flies, zebrafish, yeast, nematodes, plants, and many microbial organisms and parasites.In 2005, researchers from the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC) of the HGP announced a new estimate of 20,000 to 25,000 genes in the human genome. Previously 30,000 to 40,000 had been predicted, while estimates at the start of the project reached up to as high as 2,000,000. The number continues to fluctuate and it is now expected that it will take many years to agree on a precise value for the number of genes in the human genome.

RNA genes

RNA genes

RNA genes (sometimes referred to as non-coding RNA or small RNA) are genes that encode RNA that is not translated into a protein. The most prominent examples of RNA genes are transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), both of which are involved in the process of translation. However, since the late 1990s, many new RNA genes have been found, and thus RNA genes may play a much more significant role than previously thought. In the late 1990s and early 2000, there has been persistent evidence of more complex transcription occurring in mammalian cells (and possibly others). This could point towards a more widespread use of RNA in biology, particularly in gene regulation. A particular class of non-coding RNA, micro RNA, has been found in many metazoans (from Caenorhabditis elegans to Homo sapiens) and clearly plays an important role in regulating other genes. First proposed in 2004 by Rassoulzadegan and published in Nature 2006.

RNA is implicated as being part of the germline. If confirmed, this result would significantly alter the present understanding of genetics and lead to many question on DNA-RNA roles and interactions.RNA Deatiles,ScienceRibonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid polymer consisting of nucleotide monomers, that acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes, and that is also responsible for making proteins out of amino acids. RNA polynucleotides contain ribose sugars and predominantly uracil unlike deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains deoxyribose and predominantly thymine. It is transcribed (synthesized) from DNA by enzymes called RNA polymerases and further processed by other enzymes.

RNA serves as the template for translation of genes into proteins, transferring amino acids to the ribosome to form proteins, and also translating the transcript into proteins. Nucleic acids were discovered in 1868 (some sources indicate 1869) by Johann Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895), who called the material 'nuclein' since it was found in the nucleus. It was later discovered that prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, also contain nucleic acids. The role of RNA in protein synthesis had been suspected since 1939, based on experiments carried out by Torbjörn Caspersson, Jean Brachet and Jack Schultz. Hubert Chantrenne elucidated the messenger role played by RNA in the synthesis of proteins in ribosome.

The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of a yeast RNA was found by Robert W. Holley in 1964, winning Holley the 1968 Nobel Prize for Medicine. In 1976, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent determined the complete nucleotide sequenceDNA Bases Bio TechnologyDeoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all living organisms. The main role of DNA is the long-term storage of information and it is often compared to a set of blueprints, since DNA contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules.
The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information. Chemically, DNA is a long polymer of simple units called nucleotides, which are held together by a backbone made of alternating sugars and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called bases. It is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called transcription. Most of these RNA molecules are used to synthesize proteins, but others are used directly in structures such as ribosomes and spliceosomes.
Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes and the set of chromosomes within a cell make up a genome. These chromosomes are duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms such as animals, plants, and fungi store their DNA inside the cell nucleus, while in prokaryotes such as bacteria it is found in the cell's cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA, which helps control its interactions with other proteins and thereby control which genes are transcribed Biotechnology Indroduction. The convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the development process.

The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. It sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources, notably those destined for commercial use. It also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology through its Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, addressing technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues. Importantly, the Convention is legally binding; countries that join it('Parties') are obliged to implement its provisions .

Apply Bio Technology Science The convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting particular species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary principle that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat. The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversity. It argues, however, that conservation will bring us significant environmental, economic and social benefits in return.In this situation, your range of choices is very broad and many packages will meet these limited.