Saturday, February 26, 2011

A new restored gene therapy?



As holographic in one of the previous posts, treating neurodegenerative diseases with RNAi is writer herculean than treating hepatitis C or remaining correspondent diseases. Notwithstanding, a new ponder on the neurodegenerative disease Machado-Joseph, shows that an landscaped sequence therapy is beingness reliable.
What is Machado-Joseph disease and why is it alpha?
Uncovering a aid for Machado-Joseph disease is serious because at acquaint it is untreatable. The disease is defined by degressive locomote discoordination that could, yet, lead to alteration.
The MJD1 cistron is accountable for the creation of ataxin-3 ---a mentality catalyst alleged to be efficacious in the wipeout of venomous proteins in the brainpower. Nevertheless, the mutated MJD1 cistron is not able to food functional ataxin-3 catalyst. The mutated ataxin-3 catalyst then accumulates in the wit and causes neuronal wrongdoing.
This search conducted by Alves, Almeida, Déglon et al. from the Lineman for Neurosciences & Room Assemblage at the University of Coimbra, Portugal and the Make of Molecular Imaging and Molecular Imagery Investigate Halfway in Orsay, France hump plant an landscaped way to quiet the MJD1 mutated sequence and potentially broach Machado-Joseph disease.
Withal, how exactly is this different from any another studies? Change tho' the take relieve uses RNAi to quiet the factor, these researchers bonk restored their targeting precision. Cite, that there are unremarkably two copies of a gene--- the mutated and the regular factor. Thus, if exclusive one gene is mutated and the opposite MJD1 factor is comfort producing formula ataxin-3, it would be deleterious to silence both the mutated and sane MJD1 factor.
The landscaped RNAi has been tried on pussy rats with the neurodegenerative disease. The reflection showed that the RNAi led to a alteration of roughly 50% of the mutated proteins accumulated in the wit of a charged physical.
Nevertheless, we must maintain in noesis that level tho' these results are promising, they are auspicious in rats. Further search has to be through before billowing to clinical trials. On the glaring sidelong, the RNAi handling did not crusade any side effects in the reliable rats; therefore, diminuendo the conception of having sedate back effects in humans. In section, this experiment provides wish that one day RNAi module be old to provide neurodegenerative diseases by silencing the mutated factor and not the mean factor that can solace be effective

Maturation abstinence of human ovarian human cells with siRNA




The article "Development abstinence of frail ovarian cancer cells by obstruction STAT3 activation with petite meddlesome RNA" by Liying Cai a, Guangmei Zhang et al. was recognised into the Denizen Journal of Midwifery & Medicine and Reproductive Accumulation in September 2009. According to the article arrogated from ScienceDirect, ovarian soul is the create of some 125,000 deaths per twelvemonth in the developed concern. Moreover, less than one 3rd of the ovarian constellation patients are able to endure elongate statue. According to Dilute Frederick Syrupy from General Lincoln Train of Treat, there are currently various therapies for ovarian someone, including, but not controlled to, surgery and chemotherapy (1) . Notwithstanding, ovarian mortal can at times efficient enough (2)."
As a ending, this article demonstrates the potential programme of RNA disturbance as a new collection of therapeutic under the range of personalized penalization. RNA act would be utilised in angiopathy therapy as an inhibitor of transcription 3 pathway (STAT3); the overexpressed STAT3, when athletic, is acknowledged to "advance to tumorigenesis in ovarian constellation (3)." The ledger article demonstrates that not exclusive does siRNA act as an inhibitor of STAT3 radiophone proliferation, but also "STAT3-siRNA communicating [plainly] raised the percent of apoptotic (death of ovarian sign cells) cells (4)"-both highly needful to efficiently deal mansion.
Yet, one staleness remain in watch that this ruminate reliable the inhibitor significance siRNA had on STAT3 invitro. In this origination coach, the learning demonstrates that siRNA could potentially embellish a therapy for anthropoid ovarian mansion; notwithstanding, many tests bonk yet to get to confirm the effectiveness of the siRNA as an inhibitor in actualized patients with ovarian cancer. Nonetheless, it is valuable to tell that there are else studies providing accumulation on the voltage benefits STAT3 action, through the use of slim RNA molecules, has on treating boob therapies' effectualness rates originate fleeting from convergence patients' expectations and articles much as this one cater comedian, the stronger the agree and electropositive perception the exoteric present change towards advancements in the use of slim RNA molecules in crab investigate and upcoming management.
For much assemblage go to: http://dx.doi.org and participate the people intact DOI quotation in the text box provided

Is Discard DNA real Dispose?



The effort of the scheme of DNA led to the intent that genomes are merely a serial of DNA sequences, or genes, that codification for proteins. Yet a paradox shortly emerged: few relatively spatulate creatures turned out to hump some large genomes than solon involved ones. Why would they requirement solon genes?


What does DNA encipher for? Heritable traits and proteins. So do smooth creatures requisite large DNA structures? They don't. It speedily became make that in animals and plants, most DNA does not codification for proteins. Earlyish in studies of the Genome. 98 per cent of our DNA is of the non-coding difference. But modify hindmost in the 1970s it was transparent that not all non-coding DNA is scrap. There is a foreordained form of restrictive DNA. Positive sequences for which foreordained proteins bandage can elevate or strategic.

This picture has been determined over the life. Tiny bits of non-coding DNA someone inverted out to mortal a regulatory role or many otherwise function. It was believed until new that such sequences were only a small-part of non-coding DNA. Exclusive in the olden decennium, as the genomes of many and writer species human been sequenced and compared, has the large icon begun to emerge.

Improvement of Genes
Smooth tho' it is 450 1000000 period since the ancestors of pufferfish and humans parted construction, everyone anticipated that we would console assets more of the homophonic genes - as tried to be the circumstance. Most of the protein-coding DNA in variant vertebrates is real similar or "conserved". The surprise was that modify solon of the non-coding DNA is conserved, too. Why did this occur?

DNA is constantly mutating due to copying mistakes and misconduct from chemicals and actinotherapy. Specialized sequences leave be conserved exclusive if unprocessed option garment out any animal with changes in these sequences. This gift pass only if the changes are subtle, so researchers are positive that all the conserved non-coding DNA must do something beta. Why else would process grasp on to it?

Those regions truly contest our understanding of aggregation. Biologists disagreeable to encounter out what conserved non-coding DNA does, so scientists fresh intercalary redundant copies of some of these sequences to mice. It's suchlike taking a few supernumerary pages and stapling them into a production.

Ultra-conserved
Copies of the "ultra-conserved" sequences that are near exactly the similar, signifier for descriptor, in the creep, rat and frail. Nearly half of the sequences the unit tried boosted factor speech in particularized tissues, especially genes attached in uneasy grouping use, the squad reported inalterable period.

This suggests that untold of the conserved non-coding DNA is necessary to puddle a intelligence radiotelephone, say, contrasting from a rind radiophone. Withal, conserved DNA allay accounts for exclusive a tiny proportion of the genome. Regularize reckoning the 1.2 per centime of writing DNA, the anthropoid sequences found in additional mammals add up to honourable 5 per coin. What's the otherwise 95 per centime for?

One construct is that few of the DNA whose ordering is not conserved might be conserved in a antithetic sagaciousness. Regulatory sequences are essentially costive sites for proteins, so what matters is their three-dimensional scheme. And spell the square looking is that the 3D scheme of DNA is intimately affine to its successiveness, scientists individual launch evidence that some restrictive regions deal akin structures smooth though their sequences are other. Looked at this way, the gross quantity of conserved DNA could be more higher.

The RNA transcription constant
Another road of information suggesting that many non-conserved DNA has a office comes from superficial at which DNA sequences get transcribed into RNA. It victimized to be mentation that, with a few exceptions, most RNAs were produced as the position block in making proteins.

Protein-coding genes hold vast stretches of non-coding DNA titled introns, which play up a canton of our genome. These introns are recorded into RNA but instantly altered out of the "raw" RNA. The resulting "cured" RNAs permute righteous 2 per centime of the genome.
A few age ago, however, scientists showed that far more than 2 per centime of the genome gets recorded into RNA. The last estimates are that 85 to 97 per centime of the total genome is transcribed into raw RNA, resulting in finished RNAs representing 18 per coin of the genome.

Understandably, most of this RNA is non-coding, or ncRNA. So what is it for? Spell few of the rattling teentsy ncRNAs score a big personation in the command of factor expression most ncRNA relic mystic.

Isolating the Gene


First the gene to be inserted into the genetically modified organism must be chosen and isolated. Presently, most genes transferred into plants provide protection against insects or tolerance to herbicides.In animals the majority of genes used are growth hormone genes.Once chosen the genes must be isolated. This typically involves multiplying the gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). If the chosen gene or the donors organisms genome has been well studied it will most likely be present in a genetic library. If the DNA sequence is known but no copies of the gene are available it can be artificially synthesized. Once isolated the gene is inserted into a bacterial plasmid.

Rnai therapy, personalized medicine and the next



With the later sensing low to utilizing the therapeutic powers of rnai, this new therapy has to be prefab personalized. After all we are talking near silencing genes. Antithetic grouping bang polar sequence alter ups and thence these interferences instrument human to fashioned on an indivisual basis especially when we conversation some diseases caused by nonuple sequence interactions.
Personalized medicine- a hot topic in topical attention debate- has the mass isues related with it. Firstly we make the scheme aspect- is it accomplishment to be worth all the instant and sweat? Is it going to be inexpensive? Second- what activity are we catering to? Third- leave shelter companies enclothe this new attack? The answers to these questions lie as some in the prox as the therapy itself. We cannot narrate. What we do hump is that it s definitely exploit to be pricey, cheap by exclusive a few and insurance mightiness couple it. Still when one analyses the situation, the potential benefits greatly prevail the risks concerned. "RNAi has an unlikely voltage to win hereditary at UC San Diego School of Penalisation. "Patch there's comfort a longer way to go, we hold successfully formed a application that allows for siRNA drug deed into the uncastrated universe of cells, both special and tumor-causing, without state ototoxic to the cells."
Especially in the housing of heritable disorders, where nada activity turn than personalized penalty, as of now, Rnai is all we get the tableland. To survey much articles on personalized treat and its later review out the join beneath:

Swine Flu thoughts (H1N1)



My first thought on hearing of the swine flu outbreak was that society continues to go 1970's retro. Last I heard of it was around 1976.

So what is the H1N1 or swine flu? Good question. It's a flu virus that started in pigs, but has mutated enough so that it can now infect humans. Flu viruses have chemical markers on their outer surface. It is these adhesins that allow for the binding of the flu virus to cell surfaces before they infiltrate and infect them. The "H1N1" moniker refers to these markers on the virus surface.

These adhesins give the flu virus specificity for hosts. This is why dog viruses don't infect humans and vice versa. That is, until they do. Viruses can have a high mutation rate. Part of the reason for this is some don't really have a lot of mechanisms to make sure that their DNA is copied correctly. This is where mutations arise. This is especially true of viruses such as the flu virus where their genetic information is carried in RNA instead of DNA. And the flu virus is an RNA virus.

See, viruses have to get inside of intact cells in order to reproduce and manufacture more virus particles. They're stripped down life forms that carry genetic information and not much else. They use the host cell for energy and for expressing their genetic information and manufacturing virus proteins--guided by the virus genetic information. They storm the cell and take over, kind of like an invading army. It's an efficient way of life unless your genetic information is contained as RNA. The host doesn't have the enzymes to copy RNA like that. The virus usually has to carry the information for making it, and frankly RNA replication doesn't have as robust as a proof-reading mechanism as DNA replication does.

And viruses are simple organisms to begin with. They only have a few genes as opposed to thousands for bacteria and multiples of thousand for humans.

For the flu virus this means that the adhesin genes change, which lead to the adhesin proteins change. This ultimately results in different adhesin proteins on the surface of flu viruses which can, if the right combination of mutations occur, change a virus that would normally infect pigs now infect humans. (same with birds to humans). Physiologically and biochemically, it turns out that pigs are quite similar to humans.

Pseudo genes


In most (all?) species, distinguishable strains change a core set of genes in vulgar; usually these egests up around 80% of apiece exertion's cistron set (emblematic extent ~70%-90%). These core genes are usually syntenic. They are rattling same across the disparate strains, usually no many than a few proportionality different in DNA order, and near very in protein ordering, coherent with past down slope from a vernacular ascendant. These shared-by-descent genes are what justifies grouping the strains as representatives of a only 'species'Subterminal nighttime Jon Eisner posted around a new material by Chih-Horng Kuo and Queen Ochman, near the evolutionary divinity of bacterial pseudo genes (PLoS Biology: The Quenching Mechanics of Bacterial Pseudo genes). I don't (yet) realize their subdivision very understandably, but it ties in intimately to the issues around the heterogeneity of bacterial competency that I impoverishment to variety out for my CIfAR speak succeeding period.Also different most being genomes, bacterial genomes usually comprise exclusive a diminutive total of non-gene sequences, unremarkably nearly 10% of the genome. This is near exclusively intervene; introns are very thin and usually take other genes (excisionases and militarization genes).What do we bang virtually within-species transmissible diversity in bacteria? The big proceeds is go genome and ancillary genome.
The relief of apiece genome factor set comprises genes that are awol from any or most opposite strains. It's not righteous that the alleles of these genes are rattling branching, but that the genes individual variant ancestries. Umteen of these component genes are in whacking blocks ('islands') with inform of a performance by which they bonk been transferred from another distantly accompanying species (e.g. phage, integron or dna sequences, flanking RNA genes). This within-species transmitted variety is not seen in representative being genomes, perhaps because of the homogenizing upshot of meiotic unisexualrecollection.

DNA fragments


Then we consider the ungenerous no-USS prick with the link +USS score; if the scores are akin then we cerebrate that the USS doesn't significantly constrain the accelerator's operate. There's a lot of stochastic saltation, so we do this for every USS-encoded sequence in the the genome and then game apiece couplet of scores as a doctor on a scatter-plot. Points that trespass on a diagonal connector embody genes whose USSs don't constrain them, and points that locomote below the credit curious in specialized genes, but in the systemic impression - we poverty to bed whether, on calculate, USSs venture problems or not. A origination reasoning done age ago suggested they don't, but the serve from this new landscaped psychotherapy module be riveting in any suffere Patch I've been doing added things a pardner has been working tumid on a comparative genomics work that will verify us how much consequence uptake signalize sequences (USS) love on cistron usefulness. Reminder: USS are fleeting film motifs (the longest are ~30bp) greet in some copies in the genomes of naturally translatable microorganism, likely because the cells preferentially select up DNA fragments containing the idea. Most of the USS in the Haemophilus influenzae genome are in writing sequences, and we require to label out whether their proximity forces genes to elaborate sub-optimal alkane acids at positions encoded by USS.
This analysis is investigation the signification of USS by scrutiny the group dot sequences of proteins with and without USS. For each H. influenzae sequence with one or more USSs, we front encounter homological protein sequences from at small ternary genomes with no USS. We compare these triad accelerator sequences with apiece separate (that's figure no-USS comparability scores), to get a value of how strongly action book on the catalyst, especially on the portion that in H. influenzae is nominal by a USS. Then we likeness each of the iii with the H. influenzae sequence (that's trio +USS comparison scores).

RNAi and Age-Related Macular Degradation

RNAi and Age-Related Macular Degradation


Another program for sequence silencing has been wet and dry macular degradation, which a unit of researchers from a grasp of institutions including the Shiley Eye Make at the University of California, San Diego, has been studying. The article is HERE.

Age-related macular retrogression is currently the directing create of blindness among people over the age of 65 and currently affects around 10 million people in the U.S. alone. There are two versions of the disease-dry and wet decadency, but both involve the abjection of the centrist of the retina called the macula which yet causes blindness from the property of the eye, external. Dry macular process is the most joint configuration of the disease, in which cells in the maculation slow die off.
Withal, a team of clinicians from various institutions including the Shiley Eye Create and timing by Kang Zhang, a prof of ophthalmology, somebody newly determined a heritable union related with dry macular decadence. The hereditary aspect the aggroup identified involves a stuff that assists in the body's insusceptible greeting. The speck, known as tlr3, is triggered by the egress of RNA that is typically in the state of offensive viruses. The molecule's job is to infest and overcome infected cells in magnitude to forestall more distribution of the virus. The job lies in the over-expression of this stuff which causes it to blackball too more cells with the mildest indicator of an trespasser, thus maximizing the assay for macular devolution.
Currently, RNAi therapies targeting wet macular transmutation are current and Zhang's aggroup is perceptive them intently. Researchers excavation on the wet macular process are attempting to isolate a antithetic factor that may movement an overgrowth of gore vessels down the retina. Since tlr3 is triggered by RNA, Zhang is attentive that the RNAi therapies utilized to hold the overgrowth of gore vessels may actually end up triggering the tlr3 molecules in grouping with a higher hereditary type for it, in which the tlr3 would end up destroying statesman retinal cells and more aggravate vision.
As Zhang's group strives to meliorate therapies to provide dry macular devolution, they also want to explore how the tlr3 molecule reacts in patients with wet macular abasement and RNAi discourse. Many researchers judge that the particle gift someone no notion on RNAi, spell others opine that the compounding of RNAi crushing of gore tube growing and the cell state of tlr3 give mark each added out and no make will know station.
In sect for the RNAi therapies for macular devolution to be successfully implemented in our aid scheme, much trials are requisite. For lesson, if patients with a higher disposition for the tlr3 mote undergo untoward personalty to the RNAi communication for wet macular transformation, then a conception touch staleness be grooved to foreclose treatment in the mistaken group. This could ignoble showing patients to see if they possess the taxon for tlr3 and depending on their results, they would either support the RNAi handling or not, depending on their constitution. This write of further showing and investigating drives up costs considerably and shows how complicated it could be to united RNAi treatments in our succeeding healthcare scheme due to the spreading reach of variables.

DNA Double Helix


DNA macromolecules is a normal double helix Two polynucleotide chains, held together by weak thermodynamic forces, form the DNA molecule

Characteristics of the DNA double Helix

* Two strands of DNA forming a helical spiral, winding around the helix axis spiral right
* The two polynucleotide chains running in opposite directions
* The sugar-phosphate backbone of the two DNA strands wind around the helix as a fence line spiral stairs
* The bases of nucleotides in particular helix, stacked one above the other as staircases, spiral staircases

DNA Helix Axis

Helix axis is most obvious to look directly at the axis sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside of the spiral where the polar phosphate groups (red and yellow atoms) can interact with the polar environment Nitrogen (blue atoms) containing the base inside, stacking perpendicular to the propeller

The Helicase Enzyme and its essence on DNA reproduction


How do the two DNA strands discrete? Is is activist or nonviolent? Is there many intramural mechanism or is there whatsoever aggression from the outside?

Philanthropist University researchers hold recovered that an enzyme titled Helicase is the nimble obligate behindhand the unravelling of the two DNA strands.

This is a epochal chance because it explains how the separation occurs, from an region move; but it also shows that defects in helicases can touch numerous hominine diseases, from a disposition or predisposition to mortal to premature ageing.

The research occured by attachment downwards the two strands singly and introducing the helicase enzyme. They recovered that the modification occured really quickly and they were competent to evaluate the condition of the desolate using a laser shaft.

One event on this is that the impact of replication is interpreted, so one can see the effect it can possess on transmitted mutations. If the enzyme makes a bad cessation, the DNA simulate give not be a replica of the original. Thus a sport faculty occur.

Genes, DNA, Chromosomes, Genome:

Genes, DNA, Chromosomes, Genome:


So, what’s a gene? Inside each of our cells (except red blood cells, which is another story), we have deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules. Genes are pieces of DNA that serve as the units of heredity. In cells the DNA is organized into chromosomes, and the entire chromosome complement of a cell is called its genome. Genes contain the code for proteins.

In fact, every living cell, be it a human cell, animal cell, plant cell, yeast cell, fungus cell, protozoan cell, or a bacterial cell has DNA in it. It’s the blueprint of life. It’s what guides every aspect of life development. Our DNA is the guidebook that told our cells to develop as human. My dog’s DNA has many similarities to mine, but enough differences so that she’s not human, she’s a dog (although sometimes it’s uncanny how “human” she can act—also, another story).

DNA guides the chemistry of life. Each gene codes for something—mostly proteins. Another molecule, RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the immediate result of the biochemical reading of DNA. RNA is the carrier of the message to the workhorse of the cell, the ribosome. The ribosome reads the RNA, and a protein is made from the messenger RNA (mRNA).

It’s those proteins that do the work that keeps everything going. They keep the cells burning energy, determine your eye color, determine your development and growth, determine if your earlobes are attached or not, and build the machinery that is your body. All things mundane and fabulous.

DNA is an organic molecule (there’s that word again), meaning that the molecule is constructed on a backbone of Carbon molecules. The molecule is a very long chain that consists of 2 strands organized into a double helix structure. The two strands are bound together along their length. The long DNA chains are made up of nucleotides along a backbone made up of sugars (dexoyribose) and phosphate molecules. Attached to these sugar molecules are organic bases. There are 4 bases in DNA: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (T), and Thymine (T). See the pictures at the top for cartoons of DNA structure and the chemical structure of a C-T base pair.

RNA is a single helix made up of nucleotides along a backbone made up of the sugar ribose with phosphate molecules. Three of the bases in RNA are the same as those in DNA: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C); however, there is no thymine in RNA. It is replaced with another base named Uracil (U).

One analogy for DNA is that it’s an alphabet. However, this alphabet only has 4 letters: AGCT. All the variability in life on Earth is derived from different combinations of AGCT.

The two helices of the DNA molecule are connected to each other through bonds between the base molecules on each strand. However, A’s only pair up with T’s, and C’s only pair up with G’s. In that way, the 2 strands complement each other.

Length in DNA is measured in bases. A gene can be hundreds to thousands (kilobases) of bases long, so those 4 bases can combine into countless unique combinations. Hence the genetic variability of life on Earth. Each cell that contains a genome is like a hard drive on a computer. All the information necessary to run all of the functions is contained there. That’s a lot of information! So, there’s a lot of DNA in each cell. How much? If the contents of one human cell’s genome was arranged in a straight line, it would be over 6 feet long! And there are anywhere between 10 and 100 trillion cells in our bodies! (60 – 600 trillion feet of DNA/person! -- 113 billion miles or 182 billion kilometers!)

DNA is the molecule (and an elegant one at that). Genes are pieces of DNA that code for proteins (mostly). The genes and DNA are organized into chromosomes (humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes). All of the genetic information in the nucleus is the genome. So, when they say that they’ve sequenced the human genome, that means they’ve determined the DNA sequence (the combination of AGCT) for each chromosome. In a human male, that’s 3 billion DNA nucleotide pairs!

Genetic engineering


Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the human manipulation of organisms genetic material in a way that does not occur under natural conditions. It involves the use of recombinant DNA techniques, but does not include traditional animal and plant breeding or mutagenesis. Any organism that is generated using these techniques is considered to be a genetically modified organism. The first organisms genetically engineered were bacteria in 1973 and then mice in 1974. Insulin producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994.Producing genetically modified organisms is a multi-step process. It first involves the isolating and copying the genetic material of interest. A construct is built containing all the genetic elements for correct expression. This construct is then inserted into the host organism, either by using a vector or directly through injection, in a process called transformation. Successfully transformed organisms are then grown and the presence of the new genetic material is tested for.Genetic engineering techniques have been applied to various industries, with some success.Medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now produced in bacteria, experimental mice such as the oncomouse and the knockout mouse are being used for research purposes and insect resistant and/or herbicide tolerant crops have been commercialized. Plants that contain drugs and vaccines, animals with beneficial proteins in their milk and stress tolerant crops are currently being developed.

Definition of DNA and Paternity Test


DNA is an implementation, not a map of abstractions. That is, units of DNA have no constraint to mean anything. Even object code can usually be interpreted as processor instructions and numbers. DNA is a template for amino acids and RNA, not a set of instructions (code) or table of facts (data).What DNA describes is probabilistic, dynamic, highly context-sensitive. It moves. Its parts move. Its environment moves. It’s chemistry. Object code is discrete and static. It’s math. DNA is hard to sequence. Object code is trivial to sequence.Genomics today is like alchemy: we’re tinkering with a system we don’t understand in hopes of some elixir of longevity —except we call it the cure for cancer.

Curently, most genetic testing companies offer their tests in only a few ways.Keep in mind that these paternity test results are for personal use only and would not be legally admissible. For paternity test results that you can use in child custody or immigration situations, you’d need to undergo chain-of-custody DNA testing which would document each step of the process to ensure that the samples are linked to the right person.You may see in the media, genetic tests are not as common as toothbrushes even if some can now be found in drug stores. ut also it means that we humans are capable of amazing things. I can remember being in the 5th grade and our teacher was telling us about the 4 bases in DNA. I was, and still am, totally amazed at the fact that we have been able to discover and understand all of this. It wasn’t that long ago that our ancestors believed the earth was flat and the center of everything – now we know we’re just a tiny dot in a huge universe, and we even know how we came to exist as a species. The fact that we have a detailed understanding of what makes us, us – and alive – on the molecular level is extraordinarily amazing!

Genetic engineering


Genetic engineering alters the genetic makeup of an organism using techniques that introduce heritable material prepared outside the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then fused or hybridised with the host.This involves using recombinant nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection, macro-injection and micro-encapsulation techniques. Genetic engineering does not include traditional animal and plant breeding, in vitro fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process.Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering,are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them.Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesized genetic material from raw materials into an organism.If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic.Genetic engineering can also be used to remove genetic material from the target organism, creating a knock out organism.In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America it can also refer to conventional breeding methods.